Abstract: From 1854 to 1867, the Japanese Bakufu promoted a series of Bakumatsu reforms, namely, Ansei, Benkyu, and Keio, aiming to end underdevelopment and isolation. These reforms mainly involved the foundation of Europeanstyle military academies as well as the modernization of armed forces, the training of qualified diplomats and military personnels, the import and manufacture of western weaponry, and the coordination among the Bakufu, the Tenno and Daimyos. In 1868, the Boshin War broke out. Following the collapse of the Bakufu and the formation of the Meiji government, the Meiji Ishin expanded its modernization efforts with the establishment of a centralized political system and with the introduction of capitalism. In general, the Japanese modernization reforms demonstrate both continuity and variability. On the one hand, originated from the Bakumatsu reforms, the Meiji Ishin shared a similar basic state policy on modernization. On the other hand, the change of the guiding principle of modernization, the different attitude toward the unequal treaties and the establishment of a centralized system also showed discontinuity and variability. This duality of continuity and variability may have resulted from the historical connections between the Tobakuundou and the Meiji Ishin in terms of the global political context, the modernizing process, and the interpersonal connections.

Key words: the Bakumatsu Reforms, the Meiji Ishin, continuity, variability